12th FEBRUARY, 2025 A.) Union Budget 2025: Focus on Urban Development Why in News? The Union Budget 2025 emphasized urban development as one of the six key areas for transformative reforms. This highlights the government's commitment to empowering cities as a crucial driver of India's development. Background • The budget prioritizes infrastructure investment, encourages Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) to diversify revenue streams, and promotes public-private partnerships. • These measures aim to enhance financial autonomy and support sustainable urban development. Key Takeaways • The Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA) has been allocated ₹96,777 crore, making up 1.91% of the total budget. • Urban development allocations have steadily increased: ₹50,000 crore (2021) → ₹79,000 crore (2024) → ₹96,777 crore (2025). • Major urban schemes receiving funds: o Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY-Urban) – Affordable housing. o Smart Cities Mission – Developing smart urban infrastructure. o Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) – Water and sanitation projects. o Urban transport projects – Focus on Metro and Mass Rapid Transit. o PM SVANidhi Revamp – Boosting income for urban street vendors. • Urban Challenge Fund introduced, financing up to 25% of bankable projects in three categories: 1. Cities as growth hubs. 2. Creative redevelopment of cities. 3. Water and sanitation projects. • At least 50% of project costs must come from bonds, bank loans, or Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs). Revenue Sources of Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) • Tax Revenue: Property tax, professional tax, entertainment tax. • Non-Tax Revenue: User fees (parking, water supply, licenses), rental income. • Revenue composition varies by city: o Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation (BMC): 19% from tax, 54% from fees and user charges (2021-22). o Greater Chennai Corporation (GCC): 80% from tax revenue. o Kochi Municipal Corporation: 57% from grants and subsidies. How ULBs Raise Funds? • Municipal Bonds: o Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation was the first ULB to issue a municipal bond for water and sanitation projects. • Loans from Financial Institutions: o ULBs can raise loans from institutions like HUDCO, World Bank, etc., for specific projects. • Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs): o At least 5-10% of total PPP projects in India are urban projects, particularly in water, sanitation, and transport. o These projects bring in private investment and expertise. This budget marks a shift toward strengthening urban finance, empowering local bodies, and improving urban infrastructure through innovative funding mechanisms.   B.) Earth’s Inner Core: New Findings on Its Structure and Rotation Why in News? A study analyzing 121 repeating earthquakes recorded between 1991 and 2024 near Antarctica’s South Sandwich Islands has revealed new insights about Earth's inner core. Key Findings of the Study • The near surface of the inner core is less rigid than previously assumed. • Changes in the solid inner core are occurring due to interactions with the turbulent molten outer core. • These interactions may be affecting its rotation, potentially altering Earth’s day length. • The independent spin of Earth’s inner core is slowing down. • Earlier, it was believed that the inner core rotated independently due to mantle interactions. • The findings challenge previous assumptions that structural changes in the inner core occur only over geological timescales. About Earth’s Inner Core • Definition: The innermost solid layer of Earth, solidified due to intense pressure from the outer layers. • Composition: Primarily iron and nickel. • Radius: ~ 1,220 km. • Temperature: ~ 5,200°C. • Properties: o High thermal and electrical conductivity. o Plays a crucial role in generating Earth’s magnetic field. Layers of Earth Based on Chemical Composition: 1. Crust – Outermost solid layer, composed of basalt and granite. 2. Mantle – Lies between crust and core; made of hot, dense, iron and magnesium-rich solid rock. 3. Core – Innermost layer, divided into: o Outer Core: Liquid, responsible for generating Earth’s magnetic field. o Inner Core: Solid, primarily iron and nickel. Based on Physical/Mechanical Properties: 1. Lithosphere – The rigid, outermost physical layer. 2. Asthenosphere – A partially molten layer of the mantle that behaves like plastic despite being solid. This discovery reshapes our understanding of Earth’s deep interior, highlighting that inner core changes can occur on much shorter timescales than previously thought. C.) Divergence in Death Penalty Decisions Across Judiciary Why in News? In 2024, the Supreme Court (SC) did not confirm a single death sentence for the second consecutive year, while trial courts awarded 139 death sentences, highlighting disparities in judicial decision-making. Background • The Supreme Court heard six death penalty appeals in 2024. o Five sentences were commuted to life imprisonment. o One accused was acquitted. Key Takeaways from the Report • The ‘Death Penalty in India: Annual Statistics Report 2024’ states that by the end of 2024, there were 564 prisoners on death row—the highest since 2000. • In 2024, trial courts imposed 139 death sentences: o 87 cases (62%) involved murder. o 35 cases (25%) involved murder with sexual offences. o Reversal of trend from 2023, when more death sentences were imposed for murder with sexual offences (59) than for murder alone (40). • The number of death row prisoners has been rising annually since 2019, when the count was 378. • 17 women were on death row in 2024. • The high number of death row convicts is due to: o Frequent imposition of death sentences by trial courts. o Low disposal rates of death penalty appeals in High Courts. Legal Provisions for Death Sentence Confirmation • Section 366 of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973, and • Section 407 of the Bharatiya Nyaya Suraksha Sanhita, 2023, o Mandate that all death penalty decisions must be confirmed by the High Court before execution. This divergence in death penalty adjudication across judicial levels raises questions about consistency, sentencing practices, and the evolving approach of higher courts towards capital punishment.   D.) Russian Shadow Fleet in the Baltic Sea: Risk of Major Oil Spill Why in News? Aging and poorly maintained tankers in Russia’s shadow fleet navigating the shallow waters of the Baltic Sea pose a major environmental disaster risk, according to experts. Background • Western nations imposed sanctions on Russian oil exports following Russia’s 2022 full-scale invasion of Ukraine. • To circumvent these restrictions, Russia operates a "shadow fleet"—a large number of unregistered, ageing tankers that avoid detection and international trade regulations. Key Takeaways What is a Shadow Fleet? A shadow fleet consists of unregistered or aging ships used to transport goods—especially sanctioned oil, arms, or illicit cargo—while avoiding international sanctions and regulations. Key Features of Russia’s Shadow Fleet 1. Use of Aging & Decommissioned Ships o Many vessels in the fleet are old, poorly maintained, and lack proper safety inspections. o Often sold by reputable shipping companies to anonymous or shell companies in jurisdictions with weak regulations. 2. Frequent Flag Changes (Flags of Convenience) o Ships regularly change their flag registrations (e.g., from Panama to Liberia) to evade tracking. o Operate under the jurisdiction of countries with weak maritime laws. 3. Manipulation of AIS Transponders (Ghost Ships) o These ships turn off their Automatic Identification System (AIS) to avoid detection. o This practice, called “going dark”, violates international maritime laws. 4. Ship-to-Ship Transfers (STS Transfers) o Cargo is transferred mid-sea between vessels, disguising the oil’s origin. o This makes it difficult for authorities to trace the movement of sanctioned goods. 5. Ties to Sanctioned Nations & Illicit Trade o Russia, Iran, North Korea, and Venezuela have been accused of using shadow fleets to bypass U.S. and EU sanctions. Potential Risks of the Shadow Fleet in the Baltic Sea • Environmental Hazard: Aging tankers increase the risk of oil spills, threatening marine ecosystems in the Baltic Sea. • Maritime Safety Risk: Unregulated ships with poor maintenance pose risks of collisions, leaks, and mechanical failures. • Violation of International Laws: The use of ghost ships and flag-hopping tactics undermines global maritime security. The growing shadow fleet operations in geopolitically sensitive regions highlight the urgent need for stronger maritime enforcement and environmental safeguards.   E.) Barriers to Women’s Labour Force Participation in India and Policy Recommendations Why in News? A recent study identifies key barriers to women’s labour force participation rate (LFPR) in India and suggests policy measures to unlock the country’s untapped female workforce potential. Key Findings • Current Status: o India’s Female Labour Force Participation Rate (FLFPR) is 37%, which is:  Below the global average of 47%  Far below the OECD average of 67% • Major Barriers to FLFPR: 1. Unpaid Care Responsibilities:  As per the Time Use in India Report 2019, Indian women spend twice as much time on unpaid care work as men. 2. Lack of Formal Part-time Work Options:  Women are often pushed into informal, low-paying, precarious jobs with no job security or social benefits. • Impact of Addressing These Barriers: o Removing these barriers can increase India’s FLFPR by 6%. Policy Recommendations 1. Formalizing Part-time Work o Implement hourly minimum wages. o Ensure job security and access to social security benefits. 2. Investing in Care Infrastructure o Public and private sector investments in affordable childcare and eldercare will benefit both women’s employment and the economy. 3. Promoting Gender Equality in Caregiving o Implement paid parental leave for both parents. o Offer tax incentives to encourage equal caregiving responsibilities. 4. Adopting Flexible Work Policies o Encourage remote work and adjustable work schedules to enable greater participation. Initiatives Taken by India to Increase FLFPR • Legislative Measures: o Maternity Benefit (Amendment) Act, 2017 – Provides paid maternity leave for women. o Factories Act, 1948 (Amendment) – Allows women to work night shifts in factories. o Equal Remuneration Act, 1976 – Ensures equal pay for men and women. • Government Schemes & Programs: o Skill India Mission – Provides vocational training for women. o Stand Up India Initiative – Supports women entrepreneurs. o Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana – National Rural Livelihood Mission (DAY-NRLM) – Empowers rural women through self-help groups and skill development. Conclusion Addressing key structural barriers like care responsibilities and job insecurity is crucial to increasing women’s participation in the workforce. A multi-pronged approach involving policy reforms, infrastructure investment, and gender-sensitive labor laws can boost India’s FLFPR and drive economic growth.   F.) Standing Committee Review of Swachh Bharat Mission (Grameen) Phase II Why in News? The Standing Committee has reviewed the progress of Swachh Bharat Mission (Grameen) Phase II [SBM(G)-II], highlighting achievements, challenges, and recommendations to accelerate the program. Key Achievements under SBM(G)-II • Out of 5,87,529 villages, 5,57,468 have been declared ODF Plus. • An ODF Plus village: o Sustains its Open Defecation Free (ODF) status. o Ensures solid and liquid waste management (SLWM). o Is visually clean. About Swachh Bharat Mission (Grameen) – SBM(G) • Launch Date: 2nd October 2014 by the Ministry of Jal Shakti. • Status: Centrally Sponsored Scheme. • Objective: Eliminate open defecation in rural areas. SBM(G) Phase II (2020-21 to 2024-25) • Aim: o Sustain ODF status. o Manage solid and liquid waste (SLWM) by 2024-25. o Transform all villages from ODF to ODF Plus Model. • Key Components: o Construction of Individual Household Latrines (IHHLs) & Community Sanitary Complexes (CSCs). o Solid and Liquid Waste Management (SLWM). Issues Highlighted by the Committee 1. Achievements below targets: o Only 35% of Solid Waste Management (SWM) and 57% of Liquid Waste Management (LWM) targets met in the last five years. 2. Swachh Survekshan Grameen (SSG)-2023: o Did not accurately capture key ODF Plus parameters. 3. Financial Assistance for IHHLs: o Incentive of ₹12,000 per IHHL (for Below Poverty Line (BPL) households) not adjusted for inflation. 4. Other Challenges: o Underutilization of funds. o Reduction in construction of IHHLs & CSCs (FY 2021-22 to FY 2023-24). Recommendations of the Committee 1. Strengthen Coordination with States/UTs: o Ensure faster implementation of Mission Goals within the targeted timeframe. 2. Avoid Extra Budgetary Resources (EBR) Funding: o As EBR incurs interest payments, more budgetary grants should be sought instead. 3. Increase Financial Assistance for IHHLs: o Adjust incentives based on inflation. 4. Improve Monitoring & Sanitation Infrastructure: o Develop a comprehensive and dynamic monitoring system. o Provide sufficient sanitation vehicles for solid and plastic waste collection. Conclusion While SBM(G)-II has made significant progress, challenges in waste management, funding, and monitoring remain. Addressing these issues through better coordination, adequate funding, and improved tracking mechanisms will be crucial to achieving ODF Plus status nationwide.